Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages (Hill of Tara, Ireland)

• Raith na Senad
• An Forradh
• Tech Cormaic
• Raith Chaelchon
• Fothadh Graine
• Tech Mairisen
• Raith Laoghaire
• Cuctain Cormaic
• Cnoc Bo
• Lecht Cu
• Lecht Cethen
• Stone Circle

1. In 1952-53 when Professor Sean P. O'Riordain excavated Raith na Senad, he identified in the pre-earthworks activity "a series of palisade trenches and post-holes representing concentric enclosures with concentric pairs of free standing posts thought to have been part of a large structure." (synopsis of Professor O'Riordain's excavation from 'Tara, An Archaeological Survey' by Dr. Conor Newman, NUI Galway) (see plan drawing) A National Roads Authority report states, "At Raith na Senad on the Hill of Tara, the second phase [consisted] of a series of palisaded enclosures c.16m and 25m in diameter" located within a larger enclosure, consisting of a "huge temple, [henge] once surrounded by about 300 huge posts". (see Geo-survey and Model of Tara) (Note: interpretation of the images is solely the work of this author) During this phase "the area was used as a burial ground. Nine burials (six inhumations, both crouched and extended and three cremations) were uncovered". (Dr. Newman) A 13m palisaded enclosure was also unearthed within the henge by Professor O'Riordain, during his subsequent excavation of Duma na nGiall in 1955-56. (see item 13)
   
   
2. The henge at Tara "probably dates from 2500 to 2300 BC and still had a big physical presence even after the posts were taken out or rotted." (Dr. Newman) The reason it "still had a big physical presence" was because the area where it once stood, remained in use as a burial site. (Note: the time frame cited by Dr. Newman for the construction of the henge, falls within the radiocarbon dates of the aforementioned 13m enclosure, 3030 - 2190 BC. (see item 13)
   
   The shape of Raith na Senad, as it's depicted on the orthostat, looks quite different than it does today. Its initial earthen structures consisted of a barrow, an oval barrow and double court tomb. (see drawing) The style of the latter in this case "has a half-court at each end of the monument... built facing away from each other". They "sometimes share the same rear stone", though "more often there is some distance between them, ranging from one to ten metres." Megalithomania.com
   
   Excavation of the earthworks by Professor O'Riordain revealed, "a barrow with traces of an enclosing bank with V-sectioned fosse... situated between ramparts 2 and 3". "The barrow had three phases of construction; the first consisted of a 16m in diameter barrow with surrounding bank and V-sectioned fosse, with associated cremation burials and one later crouched inhumation." (Dr. Newman) The "barrow" Professor O'Riordain excavated, was actually the forecourt of the northwest facing court tomb which had silted in, leaving "traces of an enclosing bank". Remains of both forecourts are still visible, as is the 'arm' which projects from the southeast facing tomb. (see inserts and overlays) Considering the shape of the 'arm', which is not a feature of court tombs and as seen on the drawing is not connected to the tomb, it appears to be an oval barrow. "a mound of earth and/or stones of roughly elliptical plan covering or containing one or more human burials and/or other ceremonially placed deposits". Monuments Protection Programme)
   
   During the 3rd phase of the earthworks activity a "quadri-vallate enclosure was also constructed" though "nothing of the fourth [rampart] is visible on the surface." (Dr. Newman) In other words, Raith na Senad evolved into an embanked ring ditch, "A monument comprising an irregularly circular enclosing ditch, interrupted by several causeways, surrounding a central circular area used for funerary activities, often concealed originally beneath an earthen mound." (The Discovery Programme) The likely reason the 4th rampart no longer exists, is that it was removed to make room for the construction of Raith na Rig's outer (2nd) rampart. (see items 3-A, 4 and 6) Professor O'Riordain refers to the area of the double court tomb as the 'causeway', however, it's unlike those associated with ring ditches. If this were a new design element, then it stands to reason that it would have been employed in similar monuments. The concave appearance in the middle of the 'causeway' is due to the cairn collapsing into the gap between the rear stones of the tombs. (see photos)
   
   Based on "Associated Roman material of second to fourth century date indicates that... [Raith na Senad] is pre-Christian." (The Discovery Programme) However, there's no evidence the artifacts are associated with its construction. Moreover, Professor O'Riordain unearthed a bronze knife guard in the pre-earthworks period and bronze pins during the earthworks phase. Although bronze was commonly in use during the Early Iron Age, 500 BC, the henge dates to 3030 - 2190 BC, so the bronze artifacts likely date to the Early Bronze Age.
   
   Assuming for the purposes of argument that the henge and associated 16m and 25m enclosures were constructed between 2500 - 2300 BC, that all three fell into disuse and were "taken out or rotted" away a few hundred years later, and that Raith na Senad dates to the 2nd - 4th century AD, then one of two highly improbable scenarios occurred.
   
   a) That well over 2,000 years after the timber structures disappeared from the landscape, the "barrow" Professor O'Riordain excavated, was constructed precisely where the 16m enclosure once stood. That the large barrow within Raith na Senad, was constructed where the 25m enclosure had been, and the earthen ramparts constructed exactly where the concentric palisaded structures once were. On top of which, all three were constructed at the center of where the henge was located.
   
   b) That some physical evidence of the henge's inner structures survived for well over 2,000 years in the landscape, and were used as a 'blueprint' in constructing Raith na Senad.
   
   The logical explanation is that the 25m enclosure was removed, and the barrow we see today constructed in its place, incorporating one or more burial cists. The 16m enclosure was removed, and the burial site within, incorporated into the northwest facing forecourt of the double court tomb. This parallels the discovery at the entrance to Duma na nGiall, where "Two burials, consisting of the cremated remains of some numbers of individuals, were placed in pots outside the passage before the stone cairn was constructed." (The Discovery Programme) Sometime later, the oval barrow was constructed. After the orthostat was reused in the passageway of Duma na nGiall, Raith na Senad's ramparts were constructed, incorporating the double court tomb, barrow and oval barrow into its current design. "At Tara there are at least seven cases where barrows have been incorporated into... later monuments". (The Discovery Programme)
   
   
3. As seen on the drawing, An Forradh consisted of six (6) ramparts. Initially, I identified those as being:
   
   a) Raith na Rig's two ramparts, as described by P.W. Joyce, LL.D. in his book 'A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland', Chapter XVI (5) "The circumvallation [of Raith na Rig] can still be traced all round; and consisted originally of two [2] walls or parapets with a deep ditch between." However, "The rings have been in most parts removed; and, it is to be regretted that, the proprietor is yearly removing more of them to spread on his land." (Dr. Petrie)
   
   b) An enclosure described by Dr. Newman. "A host of other interesting features has also come to light, such as the continuation (near the south end of the surveyed area) of a previously identified enclosure which, if projected, appears to surround the Forradh and Tech Cormaic, and also reflects the curvature of Raith na Rig." (PAST Newsletter #33, 1999) (see Geo-survey and Model of Tara)
   
   c)  An Forradh's two existing ramparts.
   
   d)  A rampart concealed within An Forradh's mound.
   
   The foregoing seemed to account for all six (6) ramparts. However, based on a recently obtained topographical gradient map, courtesy of The Discovery Programme, An Forradh originally consisted not of two (2) ramparts and a barrow, but six (6) ramparts and a barrow. (see insert of drawing and topo grad map) (Note: interpretation of the images is solely the work of this author) The evidence clearly shows that the fosses between An Forradh's 4th rampart and barrow were infilled, quite likely over time, which eventually necessitated the construction of Raith na Rig as an additional defensive structure. (see items 4 & 6) The enclosure recently revealed by geo-survey, was probably a henge, which in view of its location, likely predates the one surrounding Raith na Senad. (see item 15, Phases 1-4 and Geo-survey)
   
   Considering the elongated shape of the mound within An Forradh today, just as it is on the orthostat, it's possible it was originally an oval barrow, with its six (6) ramparts added over time. The opening in its 6th rampart, like those of Fothadh Graine and Raith Chaelchon, was due to a drop-off in that area. (see insert of drawing and topo grad map and Lidar images)
   
   The addition of the causeway to An Forradh, and the five (5) ramparts and causeway to Tech Cormaic, probably took place prior to the construction of Duma na nGiall, making the orthostat obsolete, as it would have been impossible to alter the carving to reflect their new design. This pattern of concentric ramparts with causeways is depicted in rock art throughout Ireland and Britain. (see photos) So in all likelihood, there would have been a stone at Tara with similar symbols, that included even more monuments than the original. If it still exists in the landscape, the most logical location would be on the eastern slope of the hill, just off the ancient road Slige Dala, along one of the paths leading to the causeways. (see Model of Tara and topo grad map) "Recent research suggests that many [carved stones] are associated with the fringes of uplands and with important paths of access between lower and higher ground. On occasion, they seem to line the route towards important monument complexes." (GardWeb) Additionally, the causeways within An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, appear to have the same alignment to the November/February cross-quarter sunrises as the passageway within Duma na nGiall. As for panels with causeways depicted in monuments similar to An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, such as at Buttony, Northumberland (see photos) they too are likely aligned to astronomical events, i.e. solstices, equinoxes, etc.
   
   
4. As the evidence shows, An Forradh and Tech Cormaic went from being ceremonial monuments to sites of habitation, a decision that was no doubt influenced by the strategic location the hill commanded, the relatively minimal manpower to transform them from ring barrows to a ring fort, and the natural wells and springs that surrounded the hill. Why the monuments evolved into what we see today, is due to one or both of the following:
   
   a) "This emphasis on status in the function of the ringfort, over that of defense would explain a number of defensive weaknesses of the ringfort. Banks, or multiples of them would not appear to offer the best return to their builders for their defensive value" such as "the general lack of an ability to fight out from the ringforts" (Wikipedia) Having discovered this, An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, over time, underwent a major remodeling, i.e. from concentric ramparts with causeways, to what we see in the landscape today, which as mentioned earlier would have necessitated the addition of Raith na Rig. (see item 6, also insert of drawing and topo grad map and photo and insert of plan drawing)
   
   b) That the manpower necessary to maintain that many ramparts would have been enormous.
   
   
5. The Discovery Programme lists Tech Cormaic last in the construction phases at Tara, during the "Late Pre-Christian Iron Age - Early Christian Period". Based on the orthostat, however, it's clear that the barrow within the monument known today as Tech Cormaic, existed nearly 3,000 years prior to that period. The problem here is that since it has never been excavated, their suggestion is likely based in part on the fact that Cormaic mac Art reigned from 254 - 277 AD. The mere fact that the monument bears his name, does not establish any degree of association regarding its period of construction. Throughout history, the names of buildings, streets, cities and countries have changed depending on, in many cases, the political climate of the time. Tara itself underwent numerous name changes over the millennia. "Temair and Druim Cain 'Beautiful Ridge' and Liathdruim 'Grey-ridge' and Cathair Crofinn 'Crofinn's city' and Druim nDescen 'Prospect Ridge' those are Tara's five names." (Rennes Dindshenchas, Temair I, 3) Tech Cormaic, Raith na Senad, Raith Laoghaire and the other monuments would have been no different. Moreover, it's extremely improbable that the monument could have even evolved from the barrow seen on the orthostat, to the multi-vallated ring barrow seen on the topo grad map, to what exists in the landscape today, during the course of Cormaic mac Art's reign.
   
   "Tech Cormaic was the only ringfort at Tara... its outer rampart extended figure-of-eight style to surround and enclose the Forrad." (The Discovery Programme) Given the historical record, i.e. the carvings on the orthostat, Tech Cormaic was never a ringfort, but a barrow that was incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. Tech Cormaic, An Forradh and Raith na Rig as a whole comprise the ringfort, as evidenced by the palisades erected within their ramparts. (see photo and insert of plan drawing) Additionally, one of the four barrows located below the double court tomb, was also incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. The four barrows form one of two linear barrow cemeteries on the hill. (see drawing and Model of Tara) "Component round barrows arranged in a more or less straight line; the average distance between barrows rarely exceeds 100m. One or two auxiliary barrows off the main axis may be considered part of the cemetery." (Monuments Protection Programme)
   
   
6. During his excavation, Professor O'Riordain revealed a ditch within Raith na Rig "Reaching a depth of up to 3m and with the underlying bedrock stepped, it challenges the generally accepted non-defensive nature of "Royal Sites" with their internal ditches." (Helen Roche, Director - Tara Project, PAST Newsletter #28, 1998) Based on the evidence, it's Raith na Rig's two ramparts and palisaded enclosures that challenge the "non-defensive nature" of the monument, the ditch was nothing more than the V-sectioned fosse between its two (2) ramparts, as discussed in item 3,A. (see photo and insert of plan drawing) "This great enclosure seems to have been formed of two [2] murs, or parapets, having a ditch between them, as described in the prose account." (Dr. Petrie)
   
   "The earliest recognised evidence [of] (O'Riordain's black layer), was found and confirmed to be sealed beneath the bank of the enclosure. Excavation revealed that the source of this black, charcoal-rich layer was debris from a bowl furnace. Throughout the layer and especially around the immediate area of the furnace, quantities of iron slag, tuyre and crucible fragments, some with bronze residue, bronze stems and droplets, were recovered, as well as small iron objects" (Helen Roche) "Therefore, the bank was, it seems, constructed sometime after the introduction of iron." (The Discovery Programme) This would mean that Raith na Rig was constructed over 2,000 years after An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, which is highly unlikely. The following chronology takes into account both the physical and historical evidence.
   
   a) Raith na Rig's inner (1st) rampart is constructed sometime during the Early Bronze Age. According to the Annals, Eochaidh Eadghadhach was killed by Cearmna in the Battle of Teamhair (Tara) around 1532 BC. This indicates that Tara had already evolved from a ceremonial site to that of a residential one, well before that, with Raith na Rig likely having been constructed at that time. Though any dates associated with oral tradition are subject to questioning, this would place the construction of Raith na Rig roughly 400 - 600 years after that of An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, which is a more plausible time frame.
   
   b) Sometime after An Forradh and Tech Cormaic's transformation from ring barrows to a ring fort, the furnace is constructed just outside Raith na Rig's V-sectioned fosse and inner rampart, and remains in use into the Early Iron Age.
   
   c) Raith na Rig's outer (2nd) rampart is constructed on top of the furnace "sometime after the introduction of iron."
   
   The issue regarding the period of when Raith na Rig was constructed, raises the point that only two of the monuments at Tara have ever been excavated, and only one of those fully, that being Duma na nGiall. As such, to assign a period to the construction of Raith na Rig, or for that matter any any monument at Tara, is somewhat problematic.
   
   
7. "the hill drops away rather more steeply on the east, north and west sides". (The Discovery Programme) The drop-off explains why Raith Chaelchon's three (3) ramparts and Fothadh Graine's outer (2nd) rampart are depicted on the orthostat as being open-sided. (see drawing, maps, photos and Lidar images) At some point, the gaps in their ramparts were closed off. Obviously, both monuments, as depicted on the orthostat, are located too close to An Forradh, however, this is due to the reasons cited in the introduction.
   
   
8. According to Dr. Petrie's literary source, Tech Mairisen was located east of Raith na Rig and north of the well of Nemnach. (see drawing and maps) Even though no monument was visible in the landscape at the time of his survey, he surprisingly placed Tech Mairisen in the same location as the symbol on the orthostat, which was detected by geo-survey. (see Geo-surveys) While it's possible Dr. Petrie misidentified the monument with respect to its name, it is the existence of an earthen monument in that location that is relevant. (see item 10)
   
   Located just above the symbol depicting Tech Mairisen, there s a serpentiform, which in all probability depicts a stream. However, considering that virtually all of the springs and streams surrounding the hill have dried up over the millennia, and that the area in which it would have been located is now occupied by a churchyard, it would be extremely difficult to detect.
   
   
9. There are four (4) monuments listed in the Metrical Dindshenchas as being below or south of Raith na Rig. The first three, which are no longer visible in the landscape, nor do they appear on any maps, are Lecht Cu, Lecht Cethen and Cnoc Bo. Located northeast of Raith Laoghaire, the graves of Cu and Cethen consisted of a ring barrow with an incorporated barrow, and northeast of them, the ring barrow Cnoc Bo. "Below from the Rath of the Kings (it is not false) are the Grave of Cu, the Grave of Cethen, the hill of the Ox" (Vol. I, Temair III, 23) (see drawing and maps) Of the three monuments, only Lecht Cu and Lecht Cethen have been detected, as the "geophysical prospection... covers only about one-fifth of the core area." (The Discovery Programme) (see insert of drawing and Lidar image)
   
   Dr. Petrie places Lecht Cu and Lecht Cethen west of and level with the south end of Raith na Rig, and Cnoc Bo west of and level with An Forradh, none of which can be seen as being below Raith na Rig. The discrepancy lies with the fact that the Rennes Dindshenchas states, "The Monument of Cu and Cethen on the hillslope as high as (?) the Kings' Fort on the west. Two stones are there, one of them Cu's monument, the other Cethen's". (Temair I, 14) (see item 11 and maps) On the other hand, based on that same description, Macalister places the graves west of and level with the north end of Raith na Rig. Considering the symbols on the orthostat and Lidar image, the Metrical Dindshenchas would appear to be the more reliable source in this instance.
   
   The fourth monument mentioned in the Metrical Dindshenchas as being below or south of Raith na Rig, is Raith Laoghaire. "There remains south of the Rath of the King the Rath of Loegaire and his Keep". (Vol. I, Temair III, 24) The drawing shows that Raith Laoghaire had five (5) ramparts. The opening in the eastern side of its 5th rampart, may have been due to a drop-off in that area at the time it was constructed. (see drawing and Lidar images)
   
   As depicted on the orthostat, Raith Laoghaire is much smaller than An Forradh, whereas on the map it's somewhat larger. (see drawing and maps) The differences in this case are probably not due to the reasons stated in the introduction, rather that the two ramparts seen in the landscape today, were added after the orthostat was reused in constructing Duma na nGiall. Furthermore, given An Forradh's importance, it would have dictated the size and possibly the location of the other monuments at Tara. It's likely, therefore, that Raith Laoghaire's outer ramparts were not constructed until after those of An Forradh, i.e. Raith na Rig. At some point, for the reasons cited in item 4, some of the fosses between the 5th rampart and the center of the monument were infilled. Evidence of at least one of those ramparts can be seen on Dr. Petrie’s map. As in the case of Raith na Rig’s inner rampart, agriculture over the centuries has erased all but a portion of Raith Laoghaire’s two outer ramparts.
   
   
10. The site of the Stone Circle beneath Raith Laoghaire still exists in the landscape today, and matches the location of the symbol carved on the orthostat. (see drawing and maps) However, it has been suggested that this was actually the location of Tech Mairisen and the well of Nemnach, rather than that identified by Dr. Petrie. (see item 8) "Tech Mairisend was north of Nemnach, and Raith Laoghaire north of that again". (R.A.S. Macalister) Here again, regardless of who's correct in their identification, it is the existence of a stone or earthen monument in that location that is relevant.
    
    
11. There are two barrows depicted on the orthostat west of An Forradh. Even though they no longer existed in the landscape at the time of his survey, Dr. Petrie remarkably identified Cuctain Cormaic, Cormaic's Kitchen, as being located exactly where the lower barrow appears on the orthostat. However, according to the MS that R.A.S. Macalister cites, Cuctain Cormaic was located "on the slope of the hill on the brink of and eastward from, Laoghaire". There is a monument depicted on the orthostat located northeast of Raith Laoghaire, Lecht Cu and Lecht Cethen that fits the location, which is identified on the drawing and map as Cnoc Bo, but it existed over 3,000 years before Cormaic. Oddly, Dr. Petrie identified the area where the upper barrow is located on the orthostat as being Cnoc Bo, the Hill of the Ox, though in this case he enters only the name. (see item 9, also drawing and maps)
    
    
12. There are two monuments seen on the maps which are conspicuously absent from the orthostat, the first being Tech Midchuarta, the Banqueting Hall. "Conventional dating suggests that passage tombs and cursus monuments are largely coeval. The reason behind our suggestion that Tech Midchuarta is later than Duma na nGiall is that we think that it may have been aligned on the passage tomb." (The Discovery Programme) To begin with, "Access to the interiors of cursus was greatly restricted. Entranceways occur most often near one end of the long sides, but may also be found in the centre of the long sides or at the ends." (Monuments Protection Programme) Tech Midchuarta has 14 entrances; six per side, with one at either end, which means it's been misidentified as being a cursus. Taking into consideration the site's natural topography, and that the core monuments at Tara had been constructed centuries earlier, there would have been little choice as to where to construct Tech Midchuarta. Therefore, any alignment with Duma na nGiall is likely due to chance, rather than by design.
    
    As to its purpose, Tech Midchuarta may have been for the raising of livestock, within the protected environment of the enclosure. "few of the ringforts where buildings have been found inside, would be able to survive... with a herd of cattle brought inside" (Wikipedia) The obvious similarity is to today's barns, "and there was an elaborate subdivision of the inner space, with the compartments railed or partitioned off." (P.W. Joyce) Though the rest of the description is of a meeting and banqueting hall, it's likely that during the hundreds of years of oral tradition, the bards took literary license with its description.
    
    "constant tradition ascribed the building of Tech Midchuarta to Cormaic mac Airt." (254 - 277 AD)(R.A.S. Macalister) According to the Annals, however, Slanoll died in the Banqueting Hall in 1257 BC. To add to the confusion, Dr. Newman recently published an article in which he suggests Tech Midchuarta was not constructed during the Neolithic Period as a cursus, but rather during the Early Medieval as a processional avenue. Furthermore, the verse text and prose text disagree dramatically as to its dimensions, 700 feet versus 300 feet in length respectively. Given these major discrepancies, the only way to resolve the issues surrounding the date of its construction, dimensions and purpose, is through a thorough excavation.
    
    
13. Perhaps the most well-known monument, not depicted on the orthostat, is Duma na nGiall, the reason for which is that it was not constructed until after the core monuments at Tara. "The construction and original use of the tomb has now been radiocarbon dated to 3350 - 3100 BC." (from a review by Dr. Elizabeth Twohig, UC Cork, of Dr. O'Sullivan's book 'Tara, The Mound of the Hostages') However, "The earliest identifiable monument is a postulated [13m timber] enclosure of Neolithic date, part of which was uncovered in pre-tomb levels during excavation of Duma na nGiall and radiocarbon dated to between 3030 - 2190 B.C." "The construction of... Duma na nGiall... occurred sometime after the enclosure had fallen into disuse or was burned down." (The Discovery Programme) The obvious issue here is that it's impossible for an older monument to have been constructed atop a more recent one.
    
    The logical explanation of the foregoing is that the 13m enclosure, like the 16m and 25m enclosures, was another of the henge's inner structures, and as in the case of the pre-earthworks activity within the 16m enclosure, the 13m enclosure was also used as a burial site, the remains interred within it, unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall. (Note: the measurements used in the following are for illustration purposes) Taking into consideration the post holes for the henge were over 2m in diameter, its posts would have been nearly that width, and 4m to 5m in length. Therefore, it's likely the enclosure's posts were similar in size. The posts were sunk into the ground 2 meters and extend above ground 2 - 3 meters. When the enclosure was removed, at or just below ground level, the remainder of the posts, down to 1.5 meters, rotted away. The human remains were buried 1 meter deep, so remnants of the posts were naturally unearthed a half a meter below the "pre-tomb levels". In short, all the remains unearthed beneath the 'tomb' and dated to 3350 - 3100 BC, with the last Neolithic burials taking place around 2900 BC, have been incorrectly associated with the construction of Duma na nGiall.
    
    "Ongoing geophysical survey of Tara has recently revealed the existence of a huge henge-like enclosure... The elliptical ground plan of this monument implies the deliberate incorporation of the Mound of the Hostages". (Dr. Newman, PAST Newsletter #33, 1999) If Duma na nGiall and the henge were contemporary, the henge would have interfered with the alignment of the mound's passageway to the cross-quarter sunrises. Based on the evidence, the 13m enclosure is the reason why the henge incorporated the area, not Duma na nGiall. This style of multiple enclosures within a henge, is supported by the evidence unearthed within similar monuments in Ireland, none of which include a passage mound. (see illustration and drawing)
    
    Considering the foregoing, and the statement cited earlier by The Discovery Programme, that "The construction of... Duma na nGiall... occurred sometime after the [13m] enclosure had fallen into disuse or was burned down.", it stands to reason that the henge, along with the 16m and 25m enclosures, would also have fallen into disuse, and all four removed at the same time.
    
    Evidence that other remains have been incorrectly associated with Duma na nGiall, are the Neolithic burials of sixty-three or more individuals in "three cists at the back of the orthostats... built within the bedding trench that had been cut into the bedrock to receive the orthostats. They were sealed once the covering cairn was built. This appears to indicate what has often been suggested but can rarely be demonstrated, that the tomb chamber initially functioned as [a] free-standing funerary structure before the cairn was built around and above it." (from a review by Professor Chris Scarre, Durham University, of Dr. O'Sullivan's book 'Tara, The Mound of the Hostages') That "free-standing funerary structure" was the 13m enclosure. (see plan drawing)
    
    Additionally, "Surrounding the cairn and sometimes located beneath the earthen mantle, the excavators recorded a ring of seventeen bone deposits that, like the earliest dated burials in the tomb, have produced radiocarbon determinations focusing in the period 3350 - 3100 (cal.) BC." (from 'Tara, The Mound of the Hostages' by Dr. Muiris O'Sullivan) While it could be argued that the mantle was added sometime after those burials, this would have been impossible given that "A ring of fire-pits coinciding spatially with the ring of [seventeen] burials has been radiocarbon dated to more than a millennium later." (Dr. O'Sullivan) Obviously, the area where the 13m enclosure once stood was recognized as a sacred burial site, and marked in some manner for the ring of Early Bronze Age fire pits to coincide spatially with the Neolithic burials. The fire pits may have been part of a ceremonial offering, prior to the area being used for additional burials and/or the construction of Duma na nGiall.
    
    "what is particularly notable is the apparent lull in activity between the last Neolithic deposits in the tomb chamber (c. 2900 BC) and the renewal of interest in the Early Bronze Age, some six or seven centuries later, [four dates 2281 - 1943 BC] when a dozen or so burials were inserted in the chamber." (from the review by Professor Scarre) The last Neolithic burials were not inserted into the chamber, but rather the 13m enclosure. Several centuries later, the chamber and passageway were erected around the Neolithic remains, in between the three cists. (see drawing) The only remains that can definitively be assigned to Duma na nGiall, are the Early Bronze Age burials, (2281 - 1943 BC) and the twenty or more individuals buried within the mantle. (fourteen dates, 2131 - 1533 BC)
    
    Given that the monument's passageway is aligned with the cross-quarter sunrises, it indicates that it was built for religious and/or astronomical purposes, not as a 'tomb', which supports the theory that the term 'passage tomb' is a misnomer. As such, its construction predated, at least by decades, the enormous number of Early Bronze Age burials interred within the passageway, which, as in the case of the henge, would have defeated the purpose of the passageway's alignment. (see photos) The foregoing solves the mystery as to the "lull in activity" within Duma na nGiall, there simply was none. The real mystery is what event prompted the use of Duma na nGiall as a burial site, and why the Bronze Age burials were carried out in a manner hardly befitting royal family members.
    
    While it is the opinion of some archaeologists that Duma na nGiall was constructed by the "same people" who built Newgrange and Knowth; based on the radiocarbon dates and similarity of the artwork, the facts don't support that belief. The most striking difference is its size and manner of construction, as compared to Knowth and Newgrange, not to mention that the style of artwork seen within all three monuments, appears throughout Ireland and Britain. And while it has also been argued that the henge enclosed the religious heart of Tara, i.e. Duma na nGiall, that too is incorrect. In view of the symbols on the orthostat, An Forradh was always the religious heart of Tara. Barring a complete re-excavation of Duma na nGiall, and dating any artifacts used in its construction found within the trenches where the orthostats were set, i.e. antler picks etc., determining a range of dates for its construction is extremely problematic.
    
    Assuming for the purposes of argument that the remains have been correctly associated with Duma na nGiall, and therefore correctly date its construction to 3350 - 3100 BC, then two highly improbable events occurred.
    
    a) The 13m enclosure was constructed around 3800 - 3700 BC, rather than 3030 - 2190 BC, and was the only monument on the hill for several centuries.
    
    b) The 13m enclosure was only used for ceremonial purposes, and that during the centuries it was in use, no artifacts were left behind.
    
    According to Dr. O'Sullivan, there is some evidence of activity in the Early Neolithic, based on the radiocarbon dates from two (2) samples of pre-cairn charcoal unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall, (3800 - 3700 BC) as well as some shards of possible Neolithic pottery and a Mesolithic chert flake. Based on the four (4) remaining charcoal samples, it was "suggested" that the 13m enclosure was constructed in the upper range of 3350 - 3100 BC. "If the dates from Tara are of these materials, [a terrestrial reservoir] I would be very confident in the results, as long as short-lived material like seeds or leaves or twigs were selected for dating." (Dr. Thomas Higham, Deputy Director, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, RLAHA) It's highly unlikely the local inhabitants built fires consisting solely of seeds, leaves and twigs. Moreover, "the resulting date measures only the time since the death of a plant and it is up to the archaeologist to record evidence that the death of the organism is directly related to or associated with the human activities." (Dr. Richard Morlan, Canadian Archaeological Radiocarbon Database, CARD) There is no indication that the charcoal came from the timbers of the 13m enclosure, or that they and the shard are even associated. As for the chert flake, "this single item can hardly be used to indicate that the site was a 'sacred place'...". (from the review by Dr. Twohig) Though the lower range for the remains (3100 BC) and upper range for the 13m enclosure (3030 BC) are in relatively close agreement, there's an obvious issue with the dating of one or both of them.
    
    
14. Errors in radiocarbon dating can be attributed to a host of factors, one of which is the reservoir effect. With regards to the remains unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall, this anomaly was never taken into account. "for the accurate dating of human bone samples when the possibilityexists of an aquatic component in the dietary protein... d15N analysis should be undertaken routinely." (Cook, G.T, Bonsall, C, Hedges, R.E.M, McSweeney, K, Boroneant, V., Pettitt, P.B.)
    
    a) Ireland is an island. As such, its inhabitants, like every island culture, would have at least had a moderate diet of fish and shellfish. Furthermore...
    
    b) Tara is located only a few kilometers from the Irish Sea, two rivers, the Boyne and the Liffey, and numerous tributaries. This would have provided the inhabitants with an easy source of food. Evidence of this is...
    
    c) A fish weir on the Boyne, just below Dowth, again only a few kilometers from Tara, and...
    
    d) The remains of two Mesolithic fish traps, and a possible dugout canoe and dock unearthed in 2006 at Clowanstown 1, a site just southeast of Tara. (see photos)
    
    With respect to the reservoir effect on the Carbon 13 & 15 values, "we do not consider it likely that the dates have been affected by dietary factors." (A.L. Brindley, J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht) However, they go on to state that the negative Carbon 13 values suggest a "diet relatively poor in animal protein". "The same negative value could be expected in the case of moderate consumption of freshwater fish/shellfish, in which case the radiocarbon ages of these unburnt bone samples would be too old." "These apparent ages are about 400 years for marine fish and shellfish, and may be up to several thousands of years in the case of freshwater fish and shellfish." "The difference between a diet poor in protein and a diet including freshwater fish/shellfish is reflected in the d15N values." "It is too early to judge the significance of the d15N values. More work on Irish bone collagen is needed." "calibrated dates are still affected by 'own age' and 'reservoir age'... and ideally should be corrected... In practice this is usually impossible." (A.L. Brindley, J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht)
    
    Other factors which can contribute to errors in radiocarbon dating are the old wood effect, and artificial and/or natural contamination, such as from soil and groundwater. Tara sits on a vast limestone plain, surrounded by natural wells and covered with vegetation. "The most common source of contamination by modern carbon is caused by rootlet intrusion. Organic samples such as wood, charcoal... and bone are especially prone to this." (Dr. Higham)
    
    
15. Based on the facts presented and the historical record, i.e. the symbols on the orthostat, the following is a brief chronology of Tara.
    
    Phase 1) A timber henge is erected, surrounding what later became An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, along with three or four smaller enclosures that were employed as burial sites.
    
    Phase 2) A second timber henge is erected, surrounding what eventually became Raith na Senad, along with the 13m, 16m and 25m enclosures that were also employed as burial sites. (3030 - 2190 BC)
    
    Phase 3) The henge atop Tara, as well as its smaller enclosures are removed, and the oval or ring barrow An Forradh, along with Tech Cormaic and two other barrows are constructed, incorporating the burial sites within those enclosures.
    
    a) The four barrows forming the linear barrow cemetery are constructed. These were satellite tombs, so they had to have been constructed after An Forradh, but added prior to its 6th rampart being erected.
    
    b) Over time, ramparts 3 - 6 are added to An Forradh, incorporating two unidentified barrows into ramparts 4 and 5, and Tech Cormaic, along with one of the barrows from the linear barrow cemetery, into its 6th rampart.
    
    Phase 4) The henge surrounding Raith na Senad, along with the 13m, 16m and 25m enclosures are removed, and the burial sites within the latter two remodeled.
    
    a) The barrow we see today is constructed in place of the 25m enclosure, incorporating one or more burials.
    
    b) The double court tomb is constructed in place of the 16m enclosure, the burials within, incorporated into the forecourt of the northwest facing tomb.
    
    c) The oval barrow projecting from the southeast facing double court tomb is constructed.
    
    d) The burials within the 13m enclosure are marked in some manner.
    
    Phase 5) The remainder of the monuments depicted on the orthostat are constructed, which include Fothadh Graine, Raith Chaelchon, Raith Laoghaire, Tech Mairisen, Cuctain Cormaic, Cnoc Bo, Lecht Cu, Lecht Cethen and the Stone Circle.
    
    Phase 6) The causeway within An Forradh's second rampart is extended through its inner and four outer ramparts, and Tech Cormaic's five (5) ramparts and causeway are constructed, making the orthostat obsolete.
    
    Phase 7) Tara begins to evolve into the site we see today.
    
    a) The now outdated orthostat is reused in constructing Duma na nGiall where the 13m enclosure once stood.
    
    b) Over time, the causeway and fosses between the 4th rampart and barrow within An Forradh are infilled, as are the causeway and fosses between Tech Cormaic's 3rd rampart and barrow, and Raith na Rig's inner rampart is constructed. This clears the way for the construction of Raith Laoghaire's 6th and 7th ramparts, and the fosses between its 5th rampart and center are infilled.
    
    c) The four ramparts of Raith na Senad are constructed, incorporating the double court tomb, barrow and oval barrow.
    
    D) Tech Midchuarta is constructed.
    
    Phase 8) Raith na Rig's outer rampart is added.
    

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